HINDUISM is the dominant religion of the vast Indian subcontinent, and
since the beginning of its history has profoundly influenced the lives and thoughts of
countless millions of the Indian people from cradle to grave. It has left an indelible
impress on the entire culture of India: on her philosophy, art, architecture, literature,
politics, and sociology. Religion gives to a Hindu equanimity of mind in prosperity and
adversity, courage to face the problems of his life, and a vision of his ultimate
spiritual destiny. Through Buddhism, an offshoot of Hinduism, India has influenced the
spiritual culture of Ceylon, Burma, Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, and other countries of
Asia, many of which still regard India as Heir spiritual homeland.
India did not, in the past, develop a national unity, in the political
sense, like that enjoyed by the nations of the West. But her people, owing allegiance to
common spiritual ideals, have been held together by an intangible religious bond. That is
why they did not disintegrate as a nation despite a prolonged foreign domination and other
vicissitudes of history. Diversities of ritual and belief, of food and dress, caste and
social behaviour, language and politics, have not been able to destroy His deeper
spiritual unity. Scratch a modern Hindu and you will find him religious in spite of his
veneer of secular upbringing and education.
Through her religion and philosophy India has earned the respect of
many thoughtful people of the Western world. To quote the words of Max Muller:
If one would ask me under what sky the human mind has most fully
developed its precious gifts, has scrutinized most profoundly the greatest problems of
life, and has, at least for some, provided solutions which deserve to be admired even by
those who have studied Plato and Kant, I would indicate India. And if one would ask me
which literature would give us back (us Europeans, who have been exclusively fed on Greek
and Roman thought, and on that of a Semitic race) the necessary equilibrium in order to
make our inner life more perfect, more comprehensive, more universal, in short, more
human, a life not only for this life, but for a transformed and eternal life, once again I
would indicate India.
Hinduism is not a set of abstract philosophical theories unrelated to
life or a congeries of religious dogmas to be accepted with blind faith; it combines both
philosophy and religion, reason and faith, and promises to its votaries a direct insight
into reality, and the grounds for the acceptance of that insight. Philosophy saved the
Hindu from religious bigotry, and religion saved him from the ivory-tower attitude of cold
intellectualism. Whenever, in the course of Hinduism's development, religion erred by
emphasizing ritual or dogma as the only means to the highest goal, a sound rational
philosophy put it on the right path, and whenever intellect claimed the role of sole
pathfinder, religion showed the futility of mere discursive reasoning and stressed the
importance of worship as a discipline for communion with ultimate reality. Thus not only
the seers of the Upanishads, but also Buddha and Sankaracharya (A.D.
788-820) repudiated the
claims of the popular religion of their time to be the exclusive means for the realization
of the highest good. The author of the Bhagavad Gita as well as Ramanuja (A.D. 1017-1137), Chaitanya (A.D. 1485-1533), and other mystics raised their
voices against arid intellectualism. In our own day Ramakrishna ( 1836-1886) harmonized the apparent conflict
between reason and faith. In the Hindu tradition, reason saves the aspiring devotee from
avoidable errors and pitfalls, work purifies his heart, meditation creates one-pointedness
of mind, love gives him the urge to move forward, faith supports him with courage in the
hour of despondency, and the grace of God bestows upon him the final fruit of liberation.
Not being a historical religion like Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam,
each of which has been articulated by the teachings of its individual founder, Hinduism
baffles all attempts to give it an easy and convenient definition; the truths of the Hindu
scriptures, the Vedas, were not formulated by historical persons. Moreover the universal
nature of Hinduism frustrates any endeavour to confine it in exact statement; the Vedas
preach an impersonal reality as ultimate truth, and not the Personal God, though they make
room for such a God and for other divinities.
Hinduism, though based essentially on the teachings of the Vedas, is
secondarily derived from the moral and religious precepts of many prophets and saints,
philosophers and lawgivers, of ancient, medieval, and modern times. It is thus a growing
organism daily enriched by new truths, emerging from the experiences of living men and
women, which have preserved its vitality and prevented it from being cluttered with
lifeless dogmas. But Hinduism's main foundation still remains the Vedas, whose teachings
are not the product of human intellect. These scriptures contain eternal truths regarding
the nature of ultimate reality, the creation, and the soul and its destiny, which cannot
be determined through sense-data and reasoning based upon them. They also tell us about
the cosmic divinities, the various heavens, the different courses followed by souls after
death, and other similar phenomena beyond the reach of the senses. As timeless as the
creation itself, these truths were discovered for the Indian world, and not created, by
certain seers who were possessed of rare insight attained through moral disciplines,
intense concentration, intellectual acumen, unflagging self-control, and utter
non-attachment to transitory pleasures. These seers of truth, both men and women, were
called rishis; they lived mostly on the banks of the Indus and the Ganges, in northern
India. We know almost nothing about their personal lives, for it was not the person, but
the ideas they stood for, that appealed to the ancient Hindus.
According to Hindu philosophers a conclusion regarding a spiritual
truth depends for its validity on three factors: the scriptures, reason, and personal
experience. An aspirant, with the help of a qualified teacher, should first study the
scriptures, which record the spiritual experiences of past seers of truth. Then he must
subject the instruction thus received to rigorous reasoning. Finally, after being
convinced of the soundness of what he has studied, he must meditate on it and experience
it in the depths of contemplation. Neither the Vedas, however, nor reasoning, nor
experience can independently create genuine conviction. By depending solely upon the
scriptures one becomes dogmatic. Reason, by itself, cannot give certainty, and often it is
found that reasoning conceals the rationalizing of a man's desire; he proves what he wants
to prove. Personal experience by itself can also be deceptive in that it may project one's
own favourite ideas. But when all three factors jointly lead to the same conclusion, one
may be reasonably assured of having reached the truth, just as, for instance, a law in the
United States of America is accepted as valid when it is approved by the Congress, the
Executive, and the Supreme Court. The authority of the Vedas does not depend upon
supernatural beings or historical evidence, which may be shaken by science or by new
historical discoveries. It is ultimately derived from spiritual experiences which are
attainable by every human being.
The Vedas are concerned not only with man's longing for the supreme
goal, which has been described as freedom, peace, bliss, or immortality, but also with his
more immediate impulse toward material pleasures here on earth and happiness in heaven.
The latter represents a universal yearning and can be fulfilled, according to the Vedas,
through the help of the gods or superhuman beings, and also through the discharge of
social obligations. The interdependence of the gods, men, subhuman creatures, and nature
is admitted, the welfare of one being dependent upon the welfare of all. In Vedic times
the gods were propitiated by means of oblations offered into the sacrificial fire, which
have now been replaced by the ritualistic worship in temples and popular shrines. The
sacrifices and similar methods of worship have been described in the ritualistic section
of the Vedas, called the Karma-kanda, and the disciplines for freedom in the philosophical
section, called the Jnana-kanda, which comprises the Upanishads.
Who are these Vedic gods, known by such names as Prajapati, Indra,
Varuna, Yama, and Rudra? Generally speaking' gods occupy exalted positions from which they
control the rain, sunshine, the wind, water, fire, death, and other natural phenomena.
They are manifestations of the power of Brahman, or ultimate reality, in the phenomenal
universe. Some of them also control the activities of the mind, the vital breath, and the
sense-organs in the human body, which, being material in nature, would be inert and
unconscious were they not animated by Brahman. The ancient Hindus prayed to the gods for
longevity, health, children, grandchildren, and material prosperity. The gods were the
custodians of the social well-being of men, from whose sacrificial oblations they drew
their sustenance; they therefore became annoyed if men violated their social obligations.
But a devotee, by worshipping them without any selfish motive, through their grace
obtained purity of heart, which helped him in the realization of truth.
The Vedas enjoin it upon all to treat with kindness subhuman beings,
such as beasts and birds, which help to promote human happiness. Thus a man's enjoyment of
earthly pleasures depends upon his discharge of his duties to the gods, his fellow human
beings, and the beasts and birds. The satisfaction derived from a harmonious relationship
with other living beings produces inner contentment and opens the gateway to the higher
life. But the satisfaction derived from ruthless competition with others, or from unkind
treatment of lower creatures, or from indifference to the gods, in the end brings
frustration and is without any spiritual significance. The Vedas emphasize the fact that
happiness on earth and in heaven is transitory, because it is related to impermanent
material objects, and also because it is an effect and can therefore endure only so long
as the momentum given by its cause endures. The denizens of heaven eventually must return
to earth and continue their apparently interminable round of birth and death in a universe
governed by the laws of time, space, and causality. He who is attached to the universe and
seeks happiness from it cannot attain to liberation, which is possible only through the
knowledge of the self or Brahman, described in the Upanishads.
The secondary scriptures of Hinduism are the various Smritis and
Puranas, which give a popular interpretation of the philosophical truths of the Vedas.
These secondary scriptures must not contradict the central philosophy of the Vedas
described in the Upanishads, but should show how to apply these truths to society and to
the individual life, according to the demands of changing times. A distinctive feature of
Hinduism is that while it remains utterly loyal to the eternal truths, it admits the need
for new dogmas and rituals to suit changing conditions. A medieval dogma cannot satisfy
the modern world.
In a sense Hinduism is a complex religion; but complexity is inherent
in human nature. People are endowed with different temperaments, tastes, and tendencies.
Some want total identity with the Deity, while others wish to preserve their separate
identities; some are intellectual, some introspective, some devotional, and some active.
Thus disciplines vary. Furthermore, some prefer to contemplate an impersonal spiritual
ideal, and some to worship a tangible deity, whether the Personal God or a crude image of
clay or stone. Besides, different people emphasize different attributes of God: justice,
power, beauty, law, love, peace. These attributes, however, are not contradictory but
rather complementary, like the different coloured stones in a mosaic or the different
patterns in a tapestry. Hinduism has blended these differences into one comprehensive
religious-philosophical system, the keynote of which is unity in diversity. A synthesis of
many religions, Hinduism has an irresistible appeal for religious-minded people.
According to the Vedas, ultimate reality is all-pervading, uncreated,
self-luminous, eternal spirit, the final cause of the universe, the power behind all
tangible forces, the consciousness which animates all conscious beings. This is the
central philosophy of the Hindu, and his religion consists of meditation on this spirit
and prayer for the guidance of his intellect along the path of virtue and righteousness.
From the Philosophical standpoint. Hinduism is non-dualistic, and from
the religious standpoint, monotheistic. The Hindu philosophy asserts the essential
non-duality of God, soul, and universe, the apparent distinctions being created by names
and forms which, from the standpoint of ultimate reality, do not exist. Though the Hindu
religion admits of many popular divinities, it regards them as diverse manifestations of
the one God. Through them He fulfils the desires of His devotees. The Hindu trinity of
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva represents the three aspects of the Godhead which control the
processes of creation, preservation, and destruction respectively. Any one of them is
incomplete and illusory without the other two. Through unceasing creation and destruction
God preserves the universe. Hindu monotheism does not repudiate the various deities of the
different faiths, but includes them as the manifestations of the One.
According to Hinduism, religion is experience and not the mere
acceptance of certain time-honoured dogmas or creeds. To know God is to become like God. A
man may quote scripture, engage in ritual, perform social service, or pray with
regularity, but unless he has realized the divine spirit in his heart, he is still a
phenomenal being, a victim of the pairs of opposites. One can experience God as tangibly
as "a fruit lying on the palm of one's hand," which means that in this very life
a man can suppress his lower nature, manifest his higher nature, and become perfect.
Through the experience of God, a man's doubts disappear and "the knots of his heart
are cut asunder." By ridding himself of the desires clinging to his heart, a mortal
becomes immortal in this very body. That the attainment of immortality is not the
prerogative of a chosen few, but the birthright of all, is the conviction of every good
Hindu.
The four cardinal principles of Hinduism may be summed up as follows:
the non-duality of the Godhead, the divinity of the soul, the unity of existence, and the
harmony of religions. On these four principles the faith of a good Hindu is based. The
articles of that faith will be discussed in detail in the succeeding chapters of this
book.
Contrary to the opinion held by many both inside and outside India,
Hinduism has never condemned a rich and full life in the world or extolled poverty as a
virtue in itself—though the case is different with monks, who voluntarily take the
vow of mendicancy. Dharma, or righteousness, has been defined as what is conducive to both
the enjoyment of legitimate material pleasures and the realization of the highest good,
according to people's different stages of evolution. The Upanishads exhort men to enjoy
life for a hundred years, giving up greed and possessiveness. It was India's fabulous
wealth that invited foreign invaders, from the Greeks to the modern Europeans. Religion
has never been the cause of India's poverty; it is indifference to religious precepts that
has been largely responsible for her general backwardness. In an ideal society the
majority of people should be householders performing their different duties as priests and
philosophers, kings and warriors, tradesmen and farmers, and lastly as manual workers,
according to their innate aptitudes. Only a minority should be monks, practicing
renunciation, both external and internal, in order to demonstrate the supremacy of the
spirit.
One sees in India a large number of persons wandering about in monastic
garb, many of whom are not genuine mendicants. These persons have taken to the monastic
life for various reasons. According to the philosophically sound nondualistic
interpretation of Vedanta, the knowledge of the nondual Brahman is utterly incompatible
with the performance of duties which admit of the triple factors of doer, instrument of
action, and result. Hence people have often sought what they thought to be an easy way to
the highest knowledge through renunciation of worldly duties. A negative interpretation of
the doctrine of Maya is often responsible for the erroneous notion that the world is
unreal. Buddha definitely taught that Nirvana could be attained only by world-renouncing
monks, and his followers later welcomed people to the monastic life without much
discrimination. Because of the general spirit of renunciation that pervades Hinduism, the
monastic life has an irresistible appeal for religious-minded Hindus. A man who cannot
easily earn his livelihood, when dressed as a monk always obtains a few morsels of food
from god-fearing and hospitable householders. Furthermore, on account of the frustrations
caused by prolonged foreign domination, many Hindus have sought an escape from the
exacting demands of life by renouncing the world and making a cult of poverty and
asceticism. All this accounts for the presence of numerous monks in Hindu society. There
are, of course, many genuine monks who, through renunciation of the world, have kept alive
the highest ideals of Hinduism. In recent times Swami Vivekananda gave a new direction to
monastic life by supplementing the ideal of renunciation with that of service to humanity,
exhorting monks to work for the uplift of the masses. Heeding his advice, many individual
monks and many monastic organizations have taken up various social and educational
activities to improve the people's condition.
But the general tenor of Hinduism has been to encourage householders to
enjoy material goods without deviating from the path of righteousness. A Hindu proverb
says: "Fortune in full measure resides in trade and commerce, one half of that in
agriculture, and one half again of that in service to the government; but the goddess of
fortune quickly runs away from a beggar." The life depicted in the Vedas and Puranas
is a joyous, affirmative, optimistic, and creative life. What is seen in India today in
society and religion is not a true index of Indian culture.
Religion has always been the backbone of India. During the days of her
national misfortune it was religion that saved Hindu society from total disintegration.
All through the period of her political decline, saints and mystics have urged her to give
up vanity and pride, and cultivate love of men and devotion to God. India listened to
their advice and survived. In the history of the world she is perhaps the solitary
instance of an ancient nation whose soul could not be destroyed by ruthless conquerors
either by force or persuasion, while many younger nations have disappeared after a
meteoric display of physical power and glory.
The chapters to come will reveal the various dimensions of Hinduism.
Its extent includes the conception of Brahman, or absolute reality, which is the
foundation of the moral and spiritual laws that guide the universe, and under whose
control the sun, moon, and stars move along their orbits. Its tremendous depth consists in
its conception of the soul, subtler than the subtle and greater than the great, guiding
the activities of body, sense-organs, and mind. Its breadth appears in its catholic
attitude toward all systems of religious and philosophical thought, and in its respect for
those who differ from it. One may discover yet a fourth dimension in Hinduism in its
realization of the all-embracing unity of animate and inanimate beings: of God, souls, and
the universe
